Publications

Agricultural losses driven by climate variability and anthropogenic pressures have severely impacted food security in Senegal. There is a crucial need to generate early warning signals for the upcoming season to enhance food security in response to the sudden climate shocks like drought. In this study, we investigated the spatial distribution of maize and groundnut using factor analysis with a principal component approach. We aimed to identify suitable predictors of crop yields for the development of a seasonal yield prediction model. Subsequently, multi-regression analysis was performed to predict crop yield based on various combinations of satellite-derived vegetation and climate (rainfall) datasets as well as agronomic data from Senegalapos;s 40 districts between 2010 and 2021. Studies revealed a strong correlation between seasonal rainfall (May to September) and crop yield: a 10–20 % decline in rainfall can lead to crop losses. The accuracy of the yield prediction model, built on the best performing scenarios for each district based on monsoon onset, duration, and planting time, exceeded 0.5 (Rsquared) for all districts when combining rainfall and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data. The model prediction accuracy varied between 0.6 and 0.8 for major crop growing areas. The study emphasizes that refining the yield prediction model using machine learning techniques can improve its accuracy and enable its implementation in early warning systems. This enhanced capability could bolster Senegalapos;s resilience to climate change by aiding decision-makers and planners in developing more effective strategies to ensure food security.

This report summarizes the 2024 second semiannual Stakeholder Forum of the Sub-sector Working Group on Irrigation (SSWG-IR), held in Vientiane Capital, Lao PDR, on October 14, 2024. Organized by the Department of Irrigation (DOI) under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF), and supported by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) through the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the forum gathered over 80 participants from government, academia, development organizations, farmer groups, and enterprises. The forum’s main objective was to facilitate discussions on solar-powered irrigation opportunities in Lao PDR. It also presented policy frameworks for irrigation development from 2026 to 2030, seeking initial feedback to shape the upcoming Irrigation Development Master Plan. Discussions emphasized solar-powered irrigation as a climate-resilient, cost-effective option for areas without grid electricity, with benefits for dry-season agriculture, food security, and organic farming.

Efficient agricultural water management (AWM) practices enhance crop water productivity and promote climate change adaptation and resilience initiatives, particularly in smallholder farming systems. Approximately 90% of sub-Saharan Africa’s (SSA) agriculture is rainfed under smallholder farmers who constitute about 60% of the continent’s population and depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. While AWM is central to the African agenda, knowledge of AWM is fragmented, making it challenging to operationalize regional initiatives at country levels. Therefore, this study sought to review the status of AWM practices and technologies in Africa and provide guidelines, scenarios, and investment plans to guide the prioritization and operationalization of the African Union’s irrigation development and AWM (AU-IDAWM) initiative. The initiative proposes four developmental pathways; 1—improved water control and watershed management in rain-fed farming, 2—farmer-led irrigation, 3—irrigation scheme development and modernization, and 4—unconventional water use for irrigation. The preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses approach guided the systematic literature review. The study indicates that most agricultural production systems are mainly under pathways 1 and 2, which dictate the subsequent AWM practices. Pathway 4 had isolated adoption in North Africa. SSA exhibited overlaps in opportunities for AWM, whereas North Africa had green energy and strong extension services. The challenges were unique to each geopolitical region. Policy-related issues affected North Africa, whilst low investment in AWM dominated West Africa. Poor institutional coordination plagued East Africa, whilst low access to extension services affected Southern Africa. The Central African region was undermined by poor management practices that culminated in soil salinity in the agricultural lands. Targeted and scalable investments across interventions are necessary to potentially improve AWM uptake and subsequent food security in the continent. Also, institutional setups are essential in coordinating efforts towards achieving AWM. Extension services are essential information dissemination platforms for adopting effective climate-smart agriculture.

Digitalisation in agriculture is transforming the way farming is practised worldwide, and its potential benefits for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are particularly promising. Yet, scientific evidence on the digital technologies utilised by smallholder food producers in SSA and the associated challenges still needs improvement. This review attempts to provide a thorough overview of the technologies currently being employed by smallholder farmers in SSA while also exploring the associated challenges and opportunities. Through a systematic literature search, 27 relevant studies were analysed to identify the region-wise current technologies, challenges, and opportunities. Results show that various digital technologies are employed, including digital extension services and digital marketing of agricultural products. These technologies improve access to information and markets and enhance productivity. However, challenges hinder widespread adoption. Limited internet connectivity, low digital literacy, inadequate infrastructure, and affordability issues impede progress. Gender disparities further limit the equitable distribution of digitalisation benefits. Despite these challenges, significant opportunities arise from adopting digital technologies. The potential advantages are market access, better decision-making capabilities, and increased income and livelihoods. Digitalisation offers transformative possibilities for smallholder farmers in SSA. Overcoming barriers such as limited connectivity and low digital literacy is crucial. By harnessing the opportunities digital technologies can offer, the livelihoods of smallholder farmers can be uplifted, contributing to the growth of agriculture in SSA.

Zambia, like many regions in southern Africa, has been severely impacted by the 2024 El Nio event. This climate pattern, characterized by warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, has triggered prolonged droughts and heatwaves across the country. The agricultural sector, a cornerstone of Zambiaapos;s economy and a vital source of livelihood, has been particularly hard-hit by these climatic shocks. Crop production losses have been substantial, with staple crops like maize and sorghum experiencing significant declines in yield. This has threatened food security at both household and national levels and also disrupted agricultural value chains, leading to economic hardship for farmers and communities reliant on agriculture. The drought has also exacerbated water scarcity, affecting both domestic and agricultural water supplies. This has had cascading effects on livestock production, health, and sanitation, further undermining the resilience of vulnerable communities. The widespread impact of the 2024 El Nio event highlights the urgent need for a comprehensive and proactive drought action plan in Zambia. This plan must address the immediate challenges posed by the recent drought while building long-term resilience to future climate variability and change. This workshop aims to bring together key stakeholders to develop a robust drought action plan for Zambia. The workshop is jointly organized by the Ministry of Agriculture, Zambia, and CGIAR initiatives on Climate Resilience quot;ClimBeR,quot; Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA), Digital Innovation of Water Secure Africa (DIWASA), the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). The agenda is in Annex 1.

Climate change-induced extreme weather events have significantly impacted smallholder farmers in low and middle-income countries, jeopardizing their livelihoods and food security. With more frequent and intense erratic rainfall patterns, droughts, and storms, farmers face heightened risks of crop failure, livestock loss, and property damage. These events also disrupt agricultural cycles and threaten already scarce water resources. The cumulative effects of climate-related disasters perpetuate cycles of poverty and ultimately affect global food security. Transformative climate adaptation solutions coupled with equitable policies are critical to bolster the resilience of these vulnerable communities and safeguard global food security. The Climate-Smart Governance (CSG) Dashboard supports countries in coordinated mid- to long-term adaptation planning. It supplies accurate data and analytics on climate vulnerabilities, governance capacities, and potential climate-smart interventions to strengthen national adaptation planning (NAP) at the national and local scales and achieve the progress of the Sustainable Development Goals. Organizations can utilize this up-to-date data to develop effective, well-coordinated adaptation policies; monitor and evaluate progress towards meeting adaptation goals; collaborate for effective use of resources; and share information on best practices and investment opportunities. The CSG Dashboard was developed as part of the CGIAR initiative on Climate Resilience (ClimBeR). ClimBeR aims to transform the climate adaptation capacity of food and agricultural systems in low- and middle-income countries by tackling vulnerability to climate change at its roots and supporting countries as they adapt and improve resilience, and build equitable and sustainable futures. This workshop marks the launch of the CSG Dashboard in Sri Lanka and brings together the decision-makers of key policy-making and development organizations in the country. Commencing in 2023, Sri Lanka’s National Planning Department and its Climate Change Secretariat collaborated with the CGIAR ClimBeR team to develop the Climate Smart Governance dashboard for Sri Lanka. The CDG Dashboard addresses the lack of timely, context-specific, actionable information necessary for local communities and planners to make informed decisions on climate adaptation interventions. The CSG Dashboard was developed by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in partnership with Sri Lankaapos;s National Planning Department and the Climate Change Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment. The platform is the first of its kind and serves as a facilitation planning tool for national adaptation planning, to bolster Sri Lankaapos;s resilience to climate change impacts and aims to foster better, climate-smart, and integrated decision-making processes. It has also been launched in Zambia and Senegal and is accessible to governments and communities worldwide.

Solar irrigation pumps (SIPs) are gradually replacing diesel pumps in relatively water-intensive agricultural production systems and geographies to reduce carbon emissions from food systems. However, beyond its climate change mitigation potential and fulfillment of Nationally Determined Contributions commitments, the adoption of solar irrigation also has direct co-benefits for farmers. Taking the case of Bangladesh and anchored on primary data collected among solar and diesel pump users, this article analyses the role access to solar irrigation has on household and farm-level outcomes. The propensity score matching and inverse probability matching approaches identify a positive effect of SIP access on food security and profitability from dry-season paddy for adopters. Different transmission channels are explored to explain these co-benefits. Lower costs of irrigation and labor are identified as the strongest pathways. This analysis strengthens the case for investments toward the solarization of agriculture in developing countries where it delivers significant development co-benefits in addition to climate change mitigation benefits. The valuation of the farmers’ co-benefits, along with global climate mitigation impacts, also highlights the potential role of such programs toward climate justice.

Food, land, and water (FLW) systems are closely interlinked; actions in one system often impact the others. Enhancing the sustainability of these interconnected systems is crucial for advancing food security, sustainable livelihoods, rural development, environmental health, and climate resilience. Recognising these interlinkages, India is making significant policy efforts to achieve environmental, economic, and social well-being (PIB 2024a). However, the complexity and evolving nature of these interlinkages necessitate coherent policy efforts (CEEW and IWMI 2023). Policy coherence involves improving institutional coordination, leveraging policy synergies, and addressing trade-offs. It also entails enabling the convergence of resources and ensuring flexibility and adaptability to changes. Policy coherence promotes the inclusion of vulnerable groups, thereby advancing social inclusion and economic empowerment (CEEW and IWMI 2023). Therefore, it is critical for advancing national goals and unlocking opportunities to achieve global sustainable development targets. This report is part of a larger study examining policy coherence with regards to FLW systems in India at both the national and sub-national levels. The national-level study was guided by the National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog, the apex public policy think-tank of the Government of India. The study yielded three important findings. First, it identified the most relevant national policies within the FLW policy landscape. Second, it highlighted the best practices and key lessons for achieving policy coherence across these policies. Third, it underscored the importance of implementing policy coherence in FLW systems at the state level, which is an important governance level for policy implementation. To drive meaningful progress at the sub-national level, it is essential to ensure policy coherence that aligns sub-national targets with broader national and global goals, such as the SDGs (UNSSC 2022, OECD n.d.a). Odisha is known for its emphasis on scientific, evidence-based policymaking, sustainable development, and convergent efforts. This study aims to better understand state-specific best practices and key lessons for improving policy coherence among Odisha’s most relevant policies on FLW systems. The study also offers actionable recommendations for enhancing policy coherence.

The CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa also known as Ukama Ustawi” (UU) Initiative’s goal is to empower millions of vulnerable smallholder farmers to transition from maize mixed systems to sustainably intensified, diversified, and de-risked agrifood systems is well underway. The initiative is being implemented in 13 African countries using coordinated transformative change interventions driven by an understanding of the unique multidimensional challenges and the opportunities they present in the different local and national contexts. One of the research activities in Ukama Ustawi is Work Package 5 (WP5): Empower and Engage women and youth in agribusiness ecosystems. In implementing this work package in Malawi, the project commissioned a landscaping study to map out the multidimensional challenges faced by the youth in agribusiness, the current interventions that are addressing the challenges, and the unique opportunities for coordinated interventions. A design workshop was held in which key stakeholders in the agribusiness space discussed the opportunities for coordinated interventions to find the best way to use available resources and linkages in a project that furthers the goals of Work Package 5. This was supplemented by key informant interviews and follow-up design activities by the Equip Consulting Group team. The proposed intervention title is “Scaling Youth Innovations in Agribusiness.” The purpose is to identify innovations for scaling a youth organization called Associated Center for Agro-based Development and Entrepreneurship Support (ACADES). Specifically, the intervention will seek to increase youth participation in agribusiness by showcasing the benefits other young people have gotten from agribusiness and to promote the sustainability of youth ventures in agribusiness by outlining best practices that have led to ACADESapos;s continued growth. The project will be implemented over nine months, in Mchinji and Nkhotakota Districts in the central region of Malawi and will coordinate or partner with financial institutions, other youth networks, the National Youth Council of Malawi, and the private sector.

Jordan is one of the most water-scarce countries in the world and hosts the second-highest share of refugees per capita in the world. A fast-increasing population, rapid urbanization, and extreme weather-related hazards, such as drought and flash floods, compound the risks to already vulnerable refugee-hosting communities in Jordan. The Jordanian government as well as humanitarian and development organizations have committed to addressing these challenges by prioritizing the design and implementation of disaster risk management models which include early warning/early action and anticipatory action strategies for climate response and resilience. To design and implement disaster preparedness strategies that are sustainable and inclusive, research on the specific vulnerabilities of communities is needed. This research report provides data on climate- and water-related vulnerabilities in refugee-hosting communities in Northern Jordan to inform disaster risk management, anticipatory action, and emergency preparedness strategies that improve long-term adaptation and climate resilience. The project is titled Anticipatory Approaches in Host Communities for Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Mitigation (AHEAD), and is part of the CGIAR Initiative on Fragility, Conflict, and Migration, which aims to address challenges in livelihood, food and climate security for vulnerable populations in fragile and conflict-affected areas. Research for this report was conducted in Irbid and Ramtha municipalities in Irbid Governorate in Northern Jordan over the course of four months. The research included a desk review of relevant literature and national policies, as well as interviews with key informants and stakeholders. This study presents a qualitative analysis of how the specific vulnerabilities of refugee-hosting communities can impact the refugee-hosting community needs during an extreme weather-related disaster, such as flash flooding in this case. Specifically, the study analyzed how climate change and water scarcity, urbanization, and socio-economic risks compound vulnerabilities in refugee-hosting communities. Mapping out these risks is the starting point for designing more inclusive and sustainable disaster risk management models and anticipatory action approaches. Given the fact that only 18% of refugees in Jordan live in refugee camps (UNHCR 2024), and the rest live in urban areas, there is an urgent need to understand the differing needs and vulnerabilities of refugees and hosting communities living in cities. This study highlights two locations, Irbid Municipality and Ramtha Municipality and 1) the water and climate risks they face, 2) the effects of climate change on the city, 3) the existing refugee and hosting populations, 4) the available infrastructure and services, and 5) the humanitarian context. The two case studies demonstrate the challenges that these municipalities face in designing and implementing disaster risk management and anticipatory act

Africa has witnessed various initiatives, programs, projects and investments aiming at poverty alleviation, agricultural sector strengthening, and rural income generation. Interventions such as agricultural training and technology adoption have shown promising results, boosting productivity and incomes among smallholder farmers. In Zimbabwe, the Ukama Ustawi (UU) initiative has spearheaded efforts to engage youth in agribusiness, fostering food security and social inclusion. This CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa aims to empower millions of vulnerable smallholder farmers to transition from maize-mixed systems to sustainably intensified, diversified, and de-risked agri-food systems. One of the research activities under this initiative is Work Package 5 (WP5): Empower and Engage Women and Youth in Agribusiness Ecosystems. Following landscaping study and dialogue in Zimbabwe and Malawi, UU plans to implement brief, impactful interventions intended to pilot or amplify existing youth agripreneurship interventions in both countries. The intervention will be implemented over a period of six months in Zimbabwe, and it will align with WP5.

This report outlines the due diligence process, grant formalization, Innovation Packing and Scaling Readiness (IPSR) workshops, and action plans for the innovations selected in the Stability-and-Peace Accelerator cohort. The due diligence process assessed both the operational and financial soundness of the innovators, screening for legal and reputational risks via international databases, and evaluating financial stability through key indicators like liquidity and debt-to-equity ratios. After formalizing grant agreements, IPSR workshops were held in Jordan, Nigeria, and Kenya, in collaboration with IWMI, ABC and IITA, to gather feedback and enhance the scalability of the innovations. These workshops facilitated discussions on improving water security, refining product designs, and enhancing conflict prediction tools. Innovators like AquaPoro, iPlant, Koolboks, and Conflict Forecast received specific guidance on cost efficiency, market entry strategies, and user-centered design improvements. Action plans, developed with input from country focal points, outlined milestones and KPIs to validate scalability and feasibility, ensuring progress is tracked. Overall, these steps have laid a foundation for scaling impactful solutions in fragile settings, fostering resilient food and water systems while promoting sustainable business models in refugee host communities.

The Midterm Report evaluates the progress of four innovators—Aquaporo, iPlant, Koolboks, and Conflict Forecast participating in the Stability-and-Peace Accelerator Sprint Program. Through WFP-led bootcamps, IWMI-led Innovation Packing and Scaling Readiness (IPSR) workshops, and venture coaching, these innovators are working to scale solutions for fragile, conflict-affected settings (FCAs). Aquaporo is advancing the Mega-WaHa water harvesting device in Jordan, with field tests planned and partnerships in development. iPlant is piloting the Green Spin hydroponic unit for small-scale farmers, addressing challenges in affordability and scalability. Koolboks is expanding solar-powered cold storage solutions in Nigeria, targeting women-led small businesses and improving distribution with local partnerships. Conflict Forecast is refining its digital tool for predicting conflict impacts on service delivery, focusing on INGO stakeholders and improving data integration. All innovators have received an equity-free grant and are on track with their scaling plans. An Innovation Showcase in December 2024 will present their progress and sustainability strategies. The Stability-and-Peace Accelerator in collaboration with the WFP Innovation Accelerator is successfully guiding these innovations toward addressing challenges in water security, food storage, and conflict prediction in fragile regions.

The Stability-and-Peace Accelerator is a collaborative initiative between the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the World Food Programme (WFP) Innovation Accelerator, aiming to leverage the expertise of CGIAR researchers and the WFP Innovation Accelerator to drive innovations aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger by 2030, while addressing interconnected goals like Gender Equality, Climate Action, and Poverty Eradication. Focused on enhancing the resilience of Food, Land, and Water Systems (FLWS) in fragile and conflict-affected settings (FCAs), especially among migrant and host communities, the program seeks to scale solutions that improve food security, nutrition, climate resilience, and social cohesion. After receiving 214 applications, four high-impact innovations were selected based on key themes identified through a strategic ecosystem analysis in Jordan, Kenya and Nigeria, including water resilience, digital climate solutions, resilient food systems, and affordable water solutions. An extensive outreach campaign generated significant engagement, and the selection process, involving collaboration with stakeholders from IWMI and CGIAR, emphasized innovation, local relevance, and sustainability. The Stability-and-Peace Accelerator is poised to significantly contribute to sustainable development and humanitarian efforts by scaling impactful solutions in vulnerable regions.

As a consequence of climate change, changes in land use, and land management—especially in densely populated areas—numerous natural disasters, such as floods, storms, heatwaves, landslides, and droughts, are becoming increasingly frequent, with severe impacts on living conditions. This is the case for Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). At the same time, intense farming practices (particularly on sloped land), deforestation activities, mining extraction operations, challenges in agriculture water management, and soil erosion all contribute to increased land vulnerability. The purpose of this study was to review how the risks of natural disasters related to flooding, landslides, and soil erosion are assessed, measured, managed, and mitigated in the central highlands of Africa, specifically in Rwanda, Burundi, and the DRC. In this process, the risks and the current status of disaster risk management, early warning systems, soil and land conservation practices, and risk mapping were investigated for the three countries. The literature review revealed a high risk for landslides, flooding, and soil erosion in the region. Risk maps covered the potential risks and helped identify the vulnerable areas. Most of them vary in spatial data, methods, and classifications. They rely on input data on elevation, slope, rainfall, lithology, soil texture, land use, land cover, and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). The use of heterogeneous data sets and geographical regions in these risk maps may lead to diverging interpretations of potential risks and ‘hot spots’ in spatial terms and the underlying drivers of those risks. None of the risk maps take into account existing population vulnerabilities such as social protection, income levels, or readiness to act in an emergency, such as hospital access in an emergency. Risk maps could be an effective tool for supporting disaster risk management policies and implementations if they are nationally based and built on comprehensive, comparable, and reliable data. With the rise of climate change-related risks, the need for expended risk mapping is expected to grow. Vegetation cover, deep-rooted vegetation, and soil management practices such as terraces, green barriers, drainage systems for overflows, or similar physical structures are useful land management practices that can reduce risks. Such practices, however, are not in place to the necessary extent in the region. In the case of disaster risk management, although strategies and action plans do exist, the study faced significant constraints in verifying their implementation and therefore, their effectiveness. This assessment is also valid for the prevailing obstacles related to accessing accurate and quality data in general. It is recommended that this desk study be supplemented with interviews and local data collection to address the identified information gaps.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from tropical large hydropower reservoirs (LHRs) is the highest among all climatic zones due to the combinatory effect of elevated content of flooded organic matter and high temperatures. Traditional methods for GHG emission estimation involve extensive fieldwork, topographic surveys, hydrological analyses, and environmental assessments with high-end instrument requirements. In a country like India, where the hydropower sector is mushrooming rapidly, implementing these techniques on such a large scale is challenging. Alternatively, cloud-based tools like Google Earth Engine (GEE), G-res, and Earth Observation (EO) data related to biophysical and climatic conditions with in-situ reservoir water levels provide an opportunity to quantify GHG emissions from LHRs efficiently. In the present study, Maithon, one of the oldest LHRs in India, situated in a tropical climatic zone, has been studied by integrating site-specific parameters to estimate GHG emissions. The results from this study, which show that at the mean operating level (146.31 m) of the reservoir, net GHG emission is 1,024 - 1,271 gCO2e/m2/yr (with a 95% confidence interval), are of significant importance. This study highlights the GHG emissions varying greatly between the full reservoir level (786 gCO2e/m2/yr) and near the dead storage level (3,855 gCO2e/m2/yr), indicating the role of reservoir operating level in mitigating GHG emissions to achieve global goals like net zero emissions. There has been limited work globally using the G-res tool, and this is the first comprehensive study of initial GHG emission estimation of a tropical reservoir using G-res and GEE incorporating updated high-resolution land use land cover and Sentinel-1 images.

Adapting to and mitigating the impacts of extreme weather and climate change in fragile environments requires addressing key questions on the status of water availability, accessibility, and technology needs. The primary goal of this research is to provide comprehensive data and actionable insights to support organizations such as the World Food Programme (WFP) and other stakeholders in developing effective strategies for water management, enhancing resilience, and ensuring water access for host communities, refugees, and internally displaced people (IDPs). This study focused on the Dolo Ado and Bokolmayo districts of Ethiopia, which are parts of the Genale Dawa River basin and the Somali Regional State that are categorized as fragile environments with a high degree of sensitivity to climate extremes. To quantify the water availability in the districts, a hydrologic model, Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), was set up and calibrated at watershed scale. Using this calibrated model, the surface water and groundwater availability were estimated. Surface water availability for Dolo Ado and Bokolmayo districts is estimated to range from 26 million cubic meters (MCM) in February to 843 MCM in May. From the hydrological modeling, it is evident that surface runoff is the lowest water balance component for the districts. This indicates that the major water sources in Dolo Ado and Bokolmayo are derived mainly from the rivers passing adjacent to the districts. Communities living close to the rivers have more access to water, with the challenge of the high cost of pumping river water for domestic and irrigation use. The water for irrigation was quantified from the low flow of streamflow simulation and annual recharge in the districts. After considering the environmental flow, 0.5 to 14.5 MCM can be considered available for irrigation in dry and wet months, respectively. Water availability for irrigation from recharge estimates can range from 1.1 MCM in September to 94.5 MCM in December. With the available water, the potential irrigable area is estimated to be around 5,900 ha and 5,300 ha for two irrigation seasons common in the districts. The results show that there is more surface water potential — mainly from the river — for irrigation in the districts compared to groundwater sources from the shallow aquifers. The status of water accessibility and technology needs was evaluated using a review of the literature and information obtained from stakeholder consultations. Existing challenges in water accessibility in the districts include inadequate infrastructure for water storage, damage to irrigation canals, seasonality of ponds, salinity of groundwater, inadequate access to clean water, and the high cost associated with pumps, fuels, and spares. Appropriate technology interventions are required to address the challenges in water availability and accessibility by the local host communities, refugees, and IDPs. The potential water users in the districts ar

Africa’s diverse climates and sparse hydro-meteorological networks create significant challenges in accurately estimating river discharge. Discharge data are crucial for managing water resources and predicting extremes. Our review assesses the data gap, existing methods, and technologies for river discharge estimation in Africa. Limited gauging networks on rivers, including in 63 transboundary basins, hinder accurate discharge modelling, affecting resource management and disaster response. Despite the potential of remote sensing, Geographic Information System (GIS), satellite imagery, and machine learning, their large-scale application for river discharge monitoring in Africa is limited. We propose the use of a monitoring system involving local communities in data collection and decision making, supported by global data centres, enhanced regional data sharing, and strengthened transboundary cooperation. For example, incorporating water data products, including discharge data, in data cubes, such as Digital Earth Africa, could improve monitoring. Strategic investments in hydro-meteorological instrumentation are crucial for strengthening climate resilience.

Southern Africa faces significant impacts of El Nio primarily in the form of droughts. Zambia is not an exception. Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), rainfall anomaly and Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) are robust indicators for drought studies due to their distinct and complementary roles. Our results reveal severe meteorological drought conditions in Zambia using SPI and rainfall anomaly. VCI values have declined in the cropping season due to vegetation stress induced by water deficit conditions. Low rainfall leads to widespread deterioration of crop production, with approximately 40.46% of the country experiencing drought conditions in 2023–2024. The Central, Eastern, Southern, Lusaka, and Copperbelt provinces showed lower VCI values in March and April 2024, indicating poor crop health and drought-like conditions. On the other hand, low rainfall has substantially influenced hydropower reservoirs. Significant surface water loss is observed in the hydropower reservoirs such as Itezhi Tezhi Dam (117.40 sq. km), Mita Hills Dam (25.72 sq. km) and in parts of Lake Kariba (58.72 sq. km) between December 2023 and April 2024. This loss has disrupted industries relying on water resources and hindered hydropower generation, leaving substantial portions of the population without electricity for extended periods. The present study aims to explore the power of open access Earth Observation data and cloud analytics to evaluate the extent and multi-sectoral impact of the recent drought in Zambia. Results highlight the upcoming challenges the country might face in food and nutrition and the critical need for stakeholder involvement and policy design to mitigate future crises and strengthen vulnerable communities.

Hydrological Ecosystem Services (HES) are crucial components of environmental sustainability and provide indispensable benefits. The present study identifies critical hot and cold spots areas of HES in the Aglar watershed of the Indian Himalayan Region using six HES descriptors, namely water yield (WYLD), crop yield factor (CYF), sediment yield (SYLD), base flow (LATQ), surface runoff (SURFQ), and total water retention (TWR). The analysis was conducted using weightage-based approaches under two methods: (1) evaluating six HES descriptors individually and (2) grouping them into broad ecosystem service categories. Furthermore, the study assessed pixel-level uncertainties that arose because of the distinctive methods used in the identification of hot and cold spots. The associated synergies and trade-offs among HES descriptors were examined too. From method 1, 0.26% area of the watershed was classified as cold spots and 3.18% as hot spots, whereas method 2 classified 2.42% area as cold spots and 2.36% as hot spots. Pixel-level uncertainties showed that 0.57 km2 and 6.86 km2 of the watershed were consistently under cold and hot spots, respectively, using method 1, whereas method 2 identified 2.30 km2 and 6.97 km2 as cold spots and hot spots, respectively. The spatial analysis of hot spots showed consistent patterns in certain parts of the watershed, primarily in the south to southwest region, while cold spots were mainly found on the eastern side. Upon analyzing HES descriptors within broad ecosystem service categories, hot spots were mainly in the southern part, and cold spots were scattered throughout the watershed, especially in agricultural and scrubland areas. The significant synergistic relation between LATQ and WYLD, and sediment retention and WYLD and trade-offs between SURFQ and HES descriptors like WYLD, LATQ, sediment retention, and TWR was attributed to varying factors such as land use and topography impacting the water balance components in the watershed. The findings underscore the critical need for targeted conservation efforts to maintain the ecologically sensitive regions at watershed scale.

Geospatial sciences (GS) include a wide range of applications, from environmental monitoring to infrastructure development, as well as location-based analysis and services. Notably, graph theory algorithms have emerged as indispensable tools in GS because of their capability to model and analyse spatial relationships efficiently. This article underscores the critical role of graph theory applications in addressing real-world geospatial challenges, emphasising their significance and potential for future innovations in advanced spatial analytics, including the digital twin concept. The analysis shows that researchers from 58 countries have contributed to exploring graph theory and its application over 37 years through more than 700 research articles. A comprehensive collection of case studies has been showcased to provide an overview of graph theory’s diverse and impactful applications in advanced geospatial research across various disciplines (transportation, urban planning, environmental management, ecology, disaster studies and many more) and their linkages to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDGs). Thus, the interdisciplinary nature of graph theory can foster an understanding of the association among different scientific domains for sustainable resource management and planning.

Climate change, population growth, rapid urbanization, shifting dietary patterns, and economic development pose significant challenges to food security, particularly in the Global South. Addressing these challenges involves efforts aimed at sustainable agricultural intensification (SAI), especially for smallholder farmers in marginalized regions. However, knowledge gaps persist regarding smallholder farmers’ access to water for SAI, particularly in arid and semi-arid agroecological zones. This study investigates smallholder farmers’ access to water for SAI in the Guinea and Sudan Savannah Agroecological Zones (SSAZ) of Ghana. Data were collected from 698 smallholder farmers across 25 communities using a structured questionnaire and geospatial techniques. The analysis employed cost distance analysis, factor analysis, and multinomial-ordered logistic regression. Findings indicate that the average distance travelled to access water from a dam or a river was 11 km and 9 km, respectively. Most respondents reported low to moderate water access for SAI. Key factors influencing water access included soil type, vegetation, and the distances to dams and rivers. To improve water access, it is recommended that smallholder farmers be educated on effective soil and water conservation techniques. Additionally, both government and non-governmental organizations should focus on building community-level dams to increase water availability for sustainable agricultural intensification.